Implantable bioelectronics and wearable sensors for kidney health and disease.

Established clinical practices for monitoring kidney health and disease - including biopsy and serum biomarker analysis - suffer from practical limitations in monitoring frequency and lack adequate sensitivity for early disease detection. Engineering advances in biosensors have led to the development of wearable and implantable systems for monitoring of kidney health. Non-invasive microfluidic systems have demonstrated utility in the detection of kidney-relevant biomarkers, such as creatinine, urea and electrolytes in peripheral body fluids such as sweat, interstitial fluid, tears and saliva. Implantable systems may aid the identification of early transplant rejection through analysis of organ temperature and perfusion, and enable real-time assessment of inflammation through the use of thermal sensors. These technologies enable continuous, real-time monitoring of kidney health, offering complementary information to standard clinical procedures to alert physicians of changes in kidney health for early intervention. In this Review, we explore devices for monitoring renal biomarkers in peripheral biofluids and discuss developments in implantable sensors for the direct measurement of the local, biophysical properties of kidney tissue. We also describe potential clinical applications, including monitoring of chronic kidney disease, acute kidney injury and allograft health.