Warmer temperatures reinforce negative land-use impacts on bees, but not on higher insect trophic levels.

Climate and land-use change are major drivers of insect decline, yet their interactive effects on insect richness and abundance, especially across trophic levels, remain poorly understood. Here, we investigate how temperature and land use shape insect communities across spatial scales and trophic levels, from flowering plants and cavity-nesting bees to hunting wasps, their antagonists and parasitism rates. Using trap nests and a space-for-time approach, we surveyed 179 plots spanning four habitat types (forest, grassland, arable land and settlements) across 60 study regions in Germany covering semi-natural, agricultural and urban landscapes. Bee richness and abundance responded to climate-land-use interactions across spatial scales, being higher with warmer local daytime temperatures and overall warmer climates, but only in less intensive land uses. In contrast, elevated night-time temperatures negatively affected bees. Higher trophic levels benefited more consistently from warmer climates than lower trophic levels and were less affected by high local daytime and night-time temperatures. Parasitism rates were lowest in arable land but similar across habitats within semi-natural regions, suggesting that landscape-scale processes buffer local effects. Our findings underscore the importance of considering night-time temperatures for diurnal insects and suggest that rising temperatures may exacerbate the negative impacts of land use on pollinators.