Optimizing zonal management framework suitable for mountain ecosystems by linking landscape, ecosystem service capacities and bundles nested.

Ecosystem service (ES)-oriented spatial optimization can contribute to regional well-being, especially for mountain ecosystems carrying multiple ES capacities. However, existing studies on mountain ecosystem services (MESs) predominantly address gradient dynamics, yet fail to incorporate landscape as a socio-ecological nexus, which hinders their practical application in spatial planning. Therefore, we proposed a spatial optimization strategy, leveraging landscape to strengthen the process from ES science to practical management in the Qinling Mountain (QLM), China. Landscape Naturalness Composite Index (LNCI) was drawn on as a continuous metric to symbolize the gradient of mountainous landscape configuration driven by social-ecological interaction. Spatiotemporal change and attribution analysis of MESs were also conducted to corroborate the final management, considering carbon sequestration (CS), modified habitat quality (HQ), and soil conservation (SC) from 1990 to 2020. We find that the three critical MESs synergistically increased over 31 years. Among them, HQ and CS increased stepwise under the context of ecological programs, but SC fluctuates dominated by rainfall. Holistically, agricultural intensification and urban development alleviated remote human-land conflicts, indicating that the improvement in MESs coincided with increases in the urban-rural population ratio and food production (FP). A mountain regulation baseline (MRB) was identified by landscape threshold, covering 44.39 % of the QLM, which can help to address a range of issues in mountain conservation. We proposed a two-tier nested zonal management framework, leveraging landscape to connect MRB and multifunctionality characterized by ES bundles. Our framework has benefits for informing adequate implications on management practices of global mountain ecosystems.