The shift toward nanovaccination: A comprehensive review of advancing nanovaccination for combinatory immune regulation therapies to treat infectious diseases and cancer.

Vaccination is an essential tool in combating infectious disease and holds significant potential in cancer immunotherapy. Recent advances in nanotechnology have paved the way for nanovaccines development, which leverage nanoparticles to enhance vaccines delivery, stability, and immunogenicity. This review article examines the composition of nanovaccines, detailing the characteristics properties of antigens and adjuvant along with the various nanomaterial commonly employed, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, biomimetic structures, as well as organic and inorganic nanocarriers. The mechanism of action of nanovaccines are discussed which contribute to robust immune activation via initiating cellular and humoral mediated responses. Special attention is given to the innovative application of nanovaccines in combinatory immunotherapy, including photo, sonodynamic, magnetic hyperthermia and chemodynamic therapies. These multifunctional platforms enable localized treatment, promote antigen release, and boost immune responses, offering promising strategies for effective infectious disease and cancer immunotherapy. Furthermore, by highlighting the "nano advantages," this review underscores the transformative potential of nanovaccines to elevate immune responses beyond the capabilities of traditional vaccines. Lastly, the challenges of nanovaccine formulation are discussed with significant implication for future immunization and therapeutic strategies.