Unpacking gender and race segregation along occupational skills and socio-economic status in Brazil.

The occupational specialization of social groups is closely tied to gender, racial and class identities, segmenting the labour market into perceived White/Black and male/female roles and skill sets. Using data from 100 million formal workers in Brazil (2003-2019), we examine patterns of occupational segmentation across 426 occupations, identifying distinct skill demands and socio-economic statuses linked to race/skin colour and gender. Classifications of 'male' or 'female' occupations are shaped by required skills, whereas distinctions between 'White' and 'Black' occupations reflect socio-economic status and historical inequalities. Women and men are segmented by gender-associated skill sets, such as engineering versus caregiving skills. Within these skill sets, strong hierarchical segregation persists, with Black individuals disproportionately concentrated in positions of lower socio-economic status. Despite recent socio-economic changes, occupational specialization patterns have remained stable. Our findings highlight that the strong association between race and lower-status occupations must be addressed for a more inclusive society.