Transgenerational Effects of Cadmium and Copper Exposure on Development, Reproduction, and Midgut Integrity in (Diptera: Culicidae): Implications for Vector Ecology Under Metal Pollution.

Heavy metal contamination in freshwater ecosystems poses persistent threats to aquatic organisms and public health. This study evaluates the transgenerational toxicity of cadmium chloride and copper sulfate on , focusing on development, reproduction, and midgut histopathology over two successive generations. Larval bioassays showed cadmium chloride to be more toxic than copper sulfate, with early instars exhibiting higher sensitivity (LC = 8.66 μg/L for Cd; 175.63 μg/L for Cu). Both metals significantly delayed larval and pupal development, reduced fecundity, and decreased egg hatchability in a dose-dependent manner. Histopathological examination revealed midgut epithelial degeneration, vacuolation, and brush border loss, with copper sulfate inducing more severe cytotoxicity. These findings confirm that sublethal, chronic metal exposure can impair physiological and reproductive traits across generations. Moreover, this study highlights the utility of mosquitoes as sensitive bioindicators of aquatic pollution, and underscores the long-term ecological implications of heavy metal contamination on vector dynamics and disease transmission.