Wang XT
University of South Dakota
Organ Behav Hum Decis Process. 1996 Nov;68(2):145-57. doi: 10.1006/obhd.1996.0095.
The author examines the mechanisms and dynamics of framing effects in risky choices across three distinct task domains (i.e., life-death, public property, and personal money). The choice outcomes of the problems presented in each of the three task domains had a binary structure of a sure thing vs a gamble of equal expected value; the outcomes differed in their framing conditions and the expected values, raging from 6000, 600, 60, to 6, numerically. It was hypothesized that subjects would become more risk seeking, if the sure outcome was below their aspiration level (the minimum requirement). As predicted, more subjects preferred the gamble when facing the life-death choice problems than facing the counterpart problems presented in the other two task domains. Subjects' risk preference varied categorically along the group size dimension in the life-death domain but changed more linearly over the expected value dimension in the monetary domain. Framing effects were observed in 7 of 13 pairs of problems, showing a positive frame-risk aversion and negative frame-risk seeking relationship. In addition, two types of framing effects were theoretically defined and empirically identified. A bidirectional framing effect involves a reversal in risk preference, and occurs when a decision maker's risk preference is ambiguous or weak. Four bidirectional effects were observed; in each case a majority of subjects preferred the sure outcome under a positive frame but the gamble under a negative frame. In contrast, a unidirectional framing effect refers to a preference shift due to the framing of choice outcomes: A majority of subjects preferred one choice outcome (either the sure thing or the gamble) under both framing conditions, with positive frame augmented the preference for the sure thing and negative frame augmented the preference for the gamble. These findings revealed some dynamic regularities of framing effects and posed implications for developing predictive and testable models of human decision making.
作者考察了在三个不同任务领域（即生死、公共财产和个人金钱）的风险选择中框架效应的机制和动态变化。在这三个任务领域中呈现的问题，其选择结果都具有确定选项与具有同等预期价值的赌博的二元结构；结果在框架条件和预期价值方面有所不同，数值范围从6000、600、60到6。研究假设，如果确定结果低于他们的期望水平（最低要求），那么受试者会变得更倾向于冒险。正如预测的那样，与面对其他两个任务领域中呈现的对应问题相比，更多受试者在面对生死选择问题时更喜欢赌博。在生死领域，受试者的风险偏好沿着群体规模维度有明显变化，但在金钱领域，其风险偏好随预期价值维度的变化更呈线性关系。在13对问题中有7对观察到了框架效应，呈现出正向框架-风险规避和负向框架-风险寻求的关系。此外，从理论上定义并通过实证确定了两种类型的框架效应。双向框架效应涉及风险偏好的逆转，当决策者的风险偏好不明确或较弱时就会出现。观察到了四种双向效应；在每种情况下，大多数受试者在正向框架下更喜欢确定结果，而在负向框架下更喜欢赌博结果。相比之下单向框架效应是指由于选择结果的框架而导致的偏好转变：大多数受试者在两种框架条件下都更喜欢一种选择结果（要么是确定选项要么是赌博选项），正向框架增强了对确定选项的偏好，负向框架增强了对赌博选项偏好。这些发现揭示了框架效应的一些动态规律，并对开发人类决策的预测性和可测试模型具有启示意义。
