Using metaphors as modifiers: children's production of metaphoric compounds.

Although much research has investigated children's use of metaphoric language, methodological concerns raise questions about the conclusions, and it remains unclear whether preschoolers can produce metaphors. These studies employed a new methodology to test children's ability to produce metaphors incorporated into metaphoric compounds. In two studies, 59 children aged 2:8-4:3, 63 children aged 4:4-6:1, and 34 adults participated in elicited production tasks. In Study 1, subjects in the COMPOUND condition corrected a puppet's incorrect compound labels for pictures that had metaphoric resemblances to other objects (e.g. 'leaf-bug' for a bug shaped like a stick). Subjects in the NONMETAPHORIC condition heard incorrect compounds describing pictures without obvious metaphoric resemblance (e.g. 'leaf-bug' for a round black beetle). Children in the REVERSAL condition heard compounds with nouns reversed (e.g. 'bug-leaf' for the stick-bug) to discover whether children distinguished between the literal and metaphoric labels. Study 2 provided an additional test of children's metaphoric-literal distinction. Results showed that children as young as 3:0 produced intentional, appropriate metaphors incorporated into compound nouns when the stimuli and puppet's labels primed recognition of metaphoric similarity and compound production. Moreover, children showed evidence of a distinction between literal and metaphoric labels. The data show that preschool children have an early ability to use metaphoric language but that significant developmental change occurs between the ages of 3:0 and 5:0 as well as beyond 5:0. Additionally, metaphoric language in preschoolers is not limited to single-word renamings.