Maturation and trafficking of monocyte-derived dendritic cells in monkeys: implications for dendritic cell-based vaccines.

Human dendritic cells (DC) have polarized responses to chemokines as a function of maturation state, but the effect of maturation on DC trafficking in vivo is not known. We have addressed this question in a highly relevant rhesus macaque model. We demonstrate that immature and CD40 ligand-matured monocyte-derived DC have characteristic phenotypic and functional differences in vitro. In particular, immature DC express CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) and migrate in response to macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha), whereas mature DC switch expression to CCR7 and respond exclusively to MIP-3beta and 6Ckine. Mature DC transduced to express a marker gene localized to lymph nodes after intradermal injection, constituting 1.5% of lymph node DC. In contrast, cutaneous DC transfected in situ via gene gun were detected in the draining lymph node at a 20-fold lower frequency. Unexpectedly, the state of maturation at the time of injection had no influence on the proportion of DC that localized to draining lymph nodes, as labeled immature and mature DC were detected in equal numbers. Immature DC that trafficked to lymph nodes underwent a significant up-regulation of CD86 expression indicative of spontaneous maturation. Moreover, immature DC exited completely from the dermis within 36 h of injection, whereas mature DC persisted in large numbers associated with a marked inflammatory infiltrate. We conclude that in vitro maturation is not a requirement for effective migration of DC in vivo and suggest that administration of Ag-loaded immature DC that undergo natural maturation following injection may be preferred for DC-based immunotherapy.