Transformation of microbes, plants and animals by particle bombardment.

Over the past several years, particle bombardment has evolved into a useful tool for molecular biologists, allowing direct gene transfer to a broad range of cell and tissue types. Some of the important applications of the process include the production of transgenic crop species including maize and soybean and the introduction of DNA into plastids and mitochondria. Recent results have extended the range of gene transfer by particle bombardment to animal and bacterial cells. One noteworthy newer application is the direct insertion of genes into the organs of living animals. Here we discuss these advances and the instrument developments that contributed to them.