Xenoestrogens: mechanisms of action and detection methods.

Estrogenic compounds exert pleiotropic effects in wildlife and humans, and endogenous estrogens, like 17 beta-estradiol, regulate growth and development of their target tissues. Environmental, industrial, or naturally occurring chemicals that possess estrogenic and/or antiestrogenic activities are termed xenoestrogens and may interfere with endocrine systems. These xenoestrogens are therefore defined as endocrine-active or endocrine-disrupting compounds. The estrogen receptor (ER) is the major regulatory unit within the estrogen-signaling pathway and the molecular mechanisms of estrogen and ER actions are described briefly. Based on the mechanism of ER action, in vitro test systems are described that can be employed for screening but also for the elucidation of mechanisms of action of (anti)estrogenic compounds. How screening assays and mechanistic studies can aid in human risk assessment for potential endocrine-active compounds is discussed also.