Regulation of early trophoblast differentiation - lessons from the mouse.

The earliest stages of trophoblast differentiation are of tremendous importance to mediate implantation and to lay the anatomical foundations for normal placental development and function throughout gestation. Yet our molecular insights into these early developmental processes in humans have been limited by the inaccessibility of material and the unavailability of trophoblast cell lines that fully recapitulate the behaviour of early placental trophoblast. In this review we highlight recent advances that have come from the study of distinct stem cell types representative of the embryonic and extraembryonic lineages in the mouse, and from the study of mouse mutants. These models have revealed the presence of intricate transcriptional networks that are set up by signalling pathways, translating extracellular growth factor and cell positional information into distinct lineage-specific transcriptional programmes. The trophoblast specificity of these networks is ensured by epigenetic mechanisms including DNA methylation and histone modifications that complement each other to define trophoblast cell fate and differentiation. Despite the anatomical differences between mouse and human placentas, it seems that important aspects of early trophoblast specification are conserved between both species. Thus we may be able to build on our insights from the mouse to better understand early trophoblast differentiation in the human conceptus which is important for improving assisted reproductive technologies and may enable us in the future to derive human trophoblast stem cell lines. These advances will facilitate the investigation of genetic, epigenetic and environmental influences on early trophoblast differentiation in normal as well as in pathological conditions.