From hysteria and shell shock to posttraumatic stress disorder: comments on psychoanalytic and neuropsychological approaches.

In this paper, we look back at some of the earliest psychoanalytic approaches to trauma. The theoretical feasibility of reconciling psychoanalytic and neurobiological accounts of the effects of severe stress is examined. First, several epistemic considerations about the concepts of falsifiability and complexity in science are discussed with regard to neuroscience and psychoanalysis. We report the decisive discussions and descriptions of shell shock and hysteria that laid the foundation for the modern notions of dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We particularly underline the differences between "traumatic memory", which merely and unconsciously repeats the past, and "narrative memory", which narrates the past as past. Then, the construction of the modern concept of PTSD is described and the classification of conversion and dissociative disorders is questioned. In the next section, several recent neurobiological findings in patients with PTSD are reviewed. We place particular emphasis on cognitive impairment and cognitive bias relative to threatening stimuli, and on a general pattern of facilitated and heightened activation of the amygdala for threat-related stimuli, which are both recognized symptoms of PTSD. A possible meeting point between Cannon's and Freud's theoretical concepts is discussed in the frame of a deregulation of the stress system which helps not only to regulate homeostasis but also to adjust behaviour to external threats. We conclude that, although psychoanalysis and neuroscience may reciprocally complement and enlighten each other, their objects and methods, and thence their concepts, are fundamentally different.