Pharmacogenomic biomarkers: new tools in current and future drug therapy.

The rapid development of techniques in the area of genome analysis has facilitated identification of new pharmacogenomic biomarkers that can provide predictive tools for improved drug response and fewer adverse drug reactions. Such biomarkers mainly originate from genes encoding drug-metabolizing enzymes, drug transporters, drug targets and human leukocyte antigens. Some of these are now integrated by the USA Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency into drug label inserts. In this review, we examine the utility and mechanistic background of pharmacogenomic biomarkers in several areas of medicine, including cancer, infection and cardiovascular disease. We also discuss the use of these biomarkers in drug development and address the impact on personalized drug prescription, including opportunities and bottlenecks.