3D printing of electrically conductive hydrogels for tissue engineering and biosensors - A review.

Electrically conductive biomaterials are gaining increasing interest owing to their potential to be used in smart, biosensoric and functional tissue-engineered scaffolds and implants. In combination with 3D printing technology, this class of materials might be one of the most advanced approaches towards future medical implants regarding potential functionalities and design possibilities. Conductive hydrogels themselves have been researched for potential sensoric and tissue engineering applications for more than a decade, while the 3D printing of such functional materials is still under early exploration. This review aims to provide a short insight into the most recent developments of 3D printable and electrically conductive hydrogels. It also provides a summary of the last few years of research in this field, with key scope on 3D printing for biomedical applications. The final literature search was conducted in May 2019, with the specific keywords '3D', 'printing', 'conductive', 'hydrogel', 'biocompatible' and combinations of the latter, using advanced search in the databases Scopus®, Web of Science® (Web of Knowledge®) and Google Scholar®. A total of 491 results were gained, while 19 recent publications were identified with the above-mentioned criteria and keywords, which are the studies finally discussed in the paper. The key results have been summarised, and the remaining challenges in the field and the scope for future research activities have been discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Hydrogels are among the most frequently used biomaterials in tissue engineering (TE). A new class of hydrogels, namely, electrically conductive hydrogels (ECHs), has been introduced in recent years. Although ECHs have been comprehensively reviewed in the literature, the combination of ECHs with 3D printing technology has emerged only recently, representing a promising key development toward the fabrication of functional 3D TE constructs. In this review, we cover for the first time the state of the art in the field of 3D printing of ECHs. Previous advances are presented, reviewing the 3D printing technologies utilised, spatial resolution and electrical conductivity values achieved, in addition to discussing the obtained mechanical properties and emerging applications of these materials.