Health Risk Assessment of PM and PM-Bound Trace Elements in Thohoyandou, South Africa.

We assessed the health risks of fine particulate matter (PM) ambient air pollution and its trace elemental components in a rural South African community. Air pollution is the largest environmental cause of disease and disproportionately affects low- and middle-income countries. PM samples were previously collected, April 2017 to April 2018, and PM mass determined. The filters were analyzed for chemical composition. The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (US EPA) health risk assessment method was applied. Reference doses were calculated from the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, South African National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), and US EPA reference concentrations. Despite relatively moderate levels of PM the health risks were substantial, especially for infants and children. The average annual PM concentration was 11 µg/m, which is above WHO guidelines, but below South African NAAQS. Adults were exposed to health risks from PM during May to October, whereas infants and children were exposed to risk throughout the year. Particle-bound nickel posed both non-cancer and cancer risks. We conclude that PM poses health risks in Thohoyandou, despite levels being compliant with yearly South African NAAQS. The results indicate that air quality standards need to be tightened and PM levels lowered in South Africa.