A2E-induced inflammation and angiogenesis in RPE cells are modulated by PPAR-α, -β/δ, -γ, and RXR antagonists and by norbixin.

-retinylidene--retinylethanolamine (A2E) plays a central role in age-related macular degeneration (AMD) by inducing angiogenesis and inflammation. A2E effects are mediated at least partly via the retinoic acid receptor (RAR)-α. Here we show that A2E binds and transactivates also peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) and retinoid X receptors (RXR). 9'--norbixin, a di-apocarotenoid is also a ligand of these nuclear receptors (NR). Norbixin inhibits PPAR and RXR transactivation induced by A2E. Moreover, norbixin reduces protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation, NF-κB and AP-1 transactivation and mRNA expression of the inflammatory interleukins (IL) -6 and -8 and of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) enhanced by A2E. By contrast, norbixin increases matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) and C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) mRNA expression in response to A2E. Selective PPAR-α, -β/δ and -γ antagonists inhibit the expression of IL-6 and IL-8 while only the antagonist of PPAR-γ inhibits the transactivation of NF-κB following A2E exposure. In addition, a cocktail of all three PPARs antagonists and also HX531, an antagonist of RXR reproduce norbixin effects on inflammation. Altogether, A2E's deleterious biological effects could be inhibited through PPAR and RXR regulation. Moreover, the modulation of these NR by norbixin may open new avenues for the treatment of AMD.