Pose2Sim: An End-to-End Workflow for 3D Markerless Sports Kinematics-Part 1: Robustness.

Being able to capture relevant information about elite athletes' movement "in the wild" is challenging, especially because reference marker-based approaches hinder natural movement and are highly sensitive to environmental conditions. We propose Pose2Sim, a markerless kinematics workflow that uses OpenPose 2D pose detections from multiple views as inputs, identifies the person of interest, robustly triangulates joint coordinates from calibrated cameras, and feeds those to a 3D inverse kinematic full-body OpenSim model in order to compute biomechanically congruent joint angles. We assessed the robustness of this workflow when facing simulated challenging conditions: (Im) degrades image quality (11-pixel Gaussian blur and 0.5 gamma compression); (4c) uses few cameras (4 vs. 8); and (Cal) introduces calibration errors (1 cm vs. perfect calibration). Three physical activities were investigated: walking, running, and cycling. When averaged over all joint angles, stride-to-stride standard deviations lay between 1.7° and 3.2° for all conditions and tasks, and mean absolute errors (compared to the reference condition-Ref) ranged between 0.35° and 1.6°. For walking, errors in the sagittal plane were: 1.5°, 0.90°, 0.19° for (Im), (4c), and (Cal), respectively. In conclusion, Pose2Sim provides a simple and robust markerless kinematics analysis from a network of calibrated cameras.