Facing the Green Threat: A Water Flea's Defenses against a Carnivorous Plant.

Every ecosystem shows multiple levels of species interactions, which are often difficult to isolate and to classify regarding their specific nature. For most of the observed interactions, it comes down to either competition or consumption. The modes of consumption are various and defined by the nature of the consumed organism, e.g., carnivory, herbivory, as well as the extent of the consumption, e.g., grazing, parasitism. While the majority of consumers are animals, carnivorous plants can also pose a threat to arthropods. Water fleas of the family Daphniidae are keystone species in many lentic ecosystems. As most abundant filter feeders, they link the primary production to higher trophic levels. As a response to the high predatory pressures, water fleas have evolved various inducible defenses against animal predators. Here we show the first example, to our knowledge, in of such inducible defenses of an animal against a coexisting plant predator, i.e., the carnivorous bladderwort ( Lehm, Lentibulariaceae). When the bladderwort is present, shows changes in morphology, life history and behavior. While the morphological and behavioral adaptations improve 's survival rate in the presence of this predator, the life-history parameters likely reflect trade-offs for the defense.