Noninvasive blood oxygen, heartbeat rate, and blood pressure parameter monitoring by photoplethysmography signals.

The popularization of long-term invasive tools for continuously monitoring blood pressure remains challenging. However, with the rising popularity of wearable personal health management devices, non-cuff blood pressure measurement technology that applies electrocardiography (ECG) and photoplethysmography (PPG) has gradually received increasing attention. In particular, whether blood pressure can be measured continuously by the PPG signal alone is of great interest. In this study, we aim to develop a device that includes systolic and diastolic blood pressure calculation formulas derived from characteristic waveform points in the PPG time domain and that can measure blood oxygenation and heart rate. This device applies empirical formulas developed by PPG waveforms in the PhysioNet MIMIC-II database to calculate blood pressure. The systolic and diastolic pressures are then compared with the actual blood pressures obtained from invasive blood pressure waveforms to verify the effectiveness and feasibility of the complete developed system. Overall, 263 waveforms with double peaks and 261 waveforms with only a single peak totaling 524 sets of data are used to derive the empirical formulas. The systolic blood pressure estimation result using single peak analysis has an excessively large error exceeding ±40 mmHg, providing no reference value. However, systolic blood pressure estimation is notably better in double peak analysis, with error values reducing to approximately 23 mmHg. Diastolic pressure estimation errors are low with both single (±7 mmHg) and double peak (±4 mmHg) analyses. The error is lower in double-peak analysis than in single-peak analysis for obtaining systolic pressure from PPG waves. We plan to use PPG to detect additional physiological parameters in the future, e.g., respiratory rate, heart rate variability, or irregular heartbeat, to further enhance the functionality of PPG-based wearable devices.