Prospective Roles of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-α) in COVID-19: Prognosis, Therapeutic and Management.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) became a worldwide concern at the beginning of 2020 and has affected millions. Several previous studies revealed the impact of the imbalanced innate immune response on the progression of COVID-19 and its disease outcomes. High levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukins are produced readily by innate immune cells to fight Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections. Nonetheless, cytokine-mediated inflammatory events are also linked to detrimental lung injury and respiratory failure, which can result in deaths among COVID-19 patients. TNF-α is amongst the early cytokines produced to mediate proinflammatory responses and enhance immune cell infiltration in response to SARS-CoV-2 infections. In COVID-19, TNF-α-mediated inflammation can cause detrimental tissue damage and gradually promotes lung fibrosis, which later results in pneumonia, pulmonary edema, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. This review, therefore, aims to deliberate the immunomodulatory roles of TNF-α in promoting inflammation and its relation with COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. In addition, this review also proposes the potential of TNF-α as a biomarker for the prognosis of severe COVID-19 and its related complications and as a molecular target for anti-TNF-α therapy.