Meniscus heterogeneity and 3D-printed strategies for engineering anisotropic meniscus.

The meniscus is a fibrocartilaginous tissue of the knee joint that plays an important role in load transmission, shock absorption, joint stability maintenance, and contact stress reduction. Mild meniscal injuries can be treated with simple sutures, whereas severe injuries inevitably require meniscectomy. Meniscectomy destroys the mechanical microenvironment of the knee joint, leading to cartilage degeneration and osteoarthritis. Tissue engineering techniques, as a strategy with diverse sources and customizable and adjustable mechanical and biological properties, have emerged as promising approaches for the treatment of meniscal injuries and are represented by 3D printing. Notably, the heterogeneity of the meniscus, including its anatomical structure, cell phenotype, extracellular matrix, and biomechanical properties, is crucial for its normal function. Therefore, the construction of heterogeneous tissue-engineered menisci (TEM) has become a research hotspot in this field. In this review, we systematically summarize the heterogeneity of menisci and 3D-printed strategies for tissue-engineered anisotropic menisci. The manufacturing techniques, biomaterial combinations, surface functionalization, growth factors, and bioreactors related to 3D-printed strategies are introduced and a promising direction for the future research is proposed.