Vertebrate and Invertebrate Animal and New In Vitro Models for Studying Biology.

The history of research has involved the use of a wide variety of vertebrate and invertebrate animal models, from insects to humans. In this review, we itemise these models and describe how they have made significant contributions to understanding the pathophysiology of infections and to the development and testing of vaccines and antimicrobials. We also look ahead, briefly, to their potential replacement by complex in vitro cellular models.