Primary liver cancer organoids and their application to research and therapy.

Primary liver cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. To create advanced treatments for primary liver cancer, studies have utilized models such as 2D cell culture and animal models. Recent developments in cancer organoids have created the possibility for 3D cultures that recapitulates the cancer cell structure and operation as well as the tumor microenvironment (TME) However, before organoids can be directly translated to clinical use, tissue processing and culture medium must be standardized with unified protocols to decrease variability in results. Herein, we present the wide variety of published methodologies used to derive liver cancer organoids from patient tumor tissues. Additionally, we summarize validation methodologies for organoids in terms of marker expression levels with immunohistochemistry as well as the presence of mutations and variants through RNA-sequencing. Primary liver cancer organoids have exciting applications allowing for faster drug testing at a larger scale. Primary liver cancer organoids also assisit in uncovering new mechanisms. Through the coculture of different immune cells and cancer organoids, organoids are now better able to recapitulate the liver cancer TME. In addition, it further aids in the investigation of drug development and drug resistance. Lastly, we posit that the usage of liver cancer organoids in animal models provides researchers a methodology to overcome the current limitations of culture systems.