Exosome-loaded biomaterials for tendon/ligament repair.

Exosomes, a specialised type of extracellular vesicle, have attracted significant attention in the realm of tendon/ligament repair as a potential biologic therapeutic tool. While the competence of key substances responsible for the delivery function was gradually elucidated, series of shortcomings exemplified by the limited stability still need to be improved. Therefore, how to take maximum advantage of the biological characteristics of exosomes is of great importance. Recently, the comprehensive exploration and application of biomedical engineering has improved the availability of exosomes and revealed the future direction of exosomes combined with biomaterials. This review delves into the present application of biomaterials such as nanomaterials, hydrogels, and electrospun scaffolds, serving as the carriers of exosomes in tendon/ligament repair. By pinpointing and exploring their strengths and limitations, it offers valuable insights, paving the way the future direction of biomaterials in the application of exosomes in tendon/ligament repair in this field.