Time-domain brain: temporal mechanisms for brain functions using time-delay nets, holographic processes, radio communications, and emergent oscillatory sequences.

Time is essential for understanding the brain. A temporal theory for realizing major brain functions (e.g., sensation, cognition, motivation, attention, memory, learning, and motor action) is proposed that uses temporal codes, time-domain neural networks, correlation-based binding processes and signal dynamics. It adopts a signal-centric perspective in which neural assemblies produce circulating and propagating characteristic temporally patterned signals for each attribute (feature). Temporal precision is essential for temporal coding and processing. The characteristic spike patterns that constitute the signals enable general-purpose, multimodal, multidimensional vectorial representations of objects, events, situations, and procedures. Signals are broadcast and interact with each other in spreading activation time-delay networks to mutually reinforce, compete, and create new composite patterns. Sequences of events are directly encoded in the relative timings of event onsets. New temporal patterns are created through nonlinear multiplicative and thresholding signal interactions, such as mixing operations found in radio communications systems and wave interference patterns. The newly created patterns then become markers for bindings of specific combinations of signals and attributes (e.g., perceptual symbols, semantic pointers, and tags for cognitive nodes). Correlation operations enable both bottom-up productions of new composite signals and top-down recovery of constituent signals. Memory operates using the same principles: nonlocal, distributed, temporally coded memory traces, signal interactions and amplifications, and content-addressable access and retrieval. A short-term temporary store is based on circulating temporal spike patterns in reverberatory, spike-timing-facilitated circuits. A long-term store is based on synaptic modifications and neural resonances that select specific delay-paths to produce temporally patterned signals. Holographic principles of nonlocal representation, storage, and retrieval can be applied to temporal patterns as well as spatial patterns. These can automatically generate pattern recognition (wavefront reconstruction) capabilities, ranging from objects to concepts, for distributed associative memory applications. The evolution of proposed neural implementations of holograph-like signal processing and associative content-addressable memory mechanisms is discussed. These can be based on temporal correlations, convolutions, simple linear and nonlinear operations, wave interference patterns, and oscillatory interactions. The proposed mechanisms preserve high resolution temporal, phase, and amplitude information. These are essential for establishing high phase coherency and determining phase relationships, for binding/coupling, synchronization, and other operations. Interacting waves can sum constructively for amplification, or destructively, for suppression, or partially. Temporal precision, phase-locking, phase-dependent coding, phase-coherence, synchrony are discussed within the context of wave interference patterns and oscillatory interactions. Sequences of mixed neural oscillations are compared with a cascade of sequential mixing stages in a single-sideband carrier suppressed (SSBCS) radio communications system model. This mechanism suggests a manner by which multiple neural oscillation bands could interact to produce new emergent information-bearing oscillation bands, as well as to abolish previously generated bands. A hypothetical example illustrates how a succession of different oscillation carriers (gamma, beta, alpha, theta, and delta) could communicate and propagate (broadcast) information sequentially through a neural hierarchy of speech and language processing stages. Based on standard signal mixing principles, each stage emergently generates the next. The sequence of oscillatory bands generated in the mixing cascade model is consistent with neurophysiological observations. This sequence corresponds to stages of speech-language processing (sound/speech detection, acoustic-phonetics, phone/clusters, syllables, words/phrases, word sequences/sentences, and concepts/understanding). The oscillatory SSBCS cascade model makes specific predictions for oscillatory band frequencies that can be empirically tested. The principles postulated here may apply broadly for local and global oscillation interactions across the cortex. Sequences of oscillatory interactions can serve many functions, e.g., to regulate the flow and interaction of bottom-up, gamma-mediated and top-down, beta-mediated neural signals, to enable cross-frequency coupling. Some specific guidelines are offered as to how the general time-domain theory might be empirically tested. Neural signals need to be sampled and analyzed with high temporal resolution, without destructive windowing or filtering. Our intent is to suggest what we think is possible, and to widen both the scope of brain theory and experimental inquiry into brain mechanisms, functions, and behaviors.