Coinfections in Tuberculosis in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Epidemiology, Clinical Implications, Diagnostic Challenges, and Management Strategies-A Narrative Review.

Tuberculosis (TB) continues to be a major public health challenge in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where high burdens of coinfections exacerbate the disease's impact. In 2023, an estimated 8.2 million people were newly diagnosed with tuberculosis worldwide, reflecting an increase from 7.5 million in 2022 and 7.1 million in 2019. In LMICs, limited access to healthcare, inadequate nutrition, and poor living conditions contribute to higher coinfection rates among TB patients, leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment, which in turn exacerbates disease severity and facilitates transmission. This narrative review synthesizes the epidemiology, clinical implications, diagnostic challenges, and management strategies related to TB coinfections with viral pathogens including HIV, SARS-CoV-2, and influenza, bacteria such as , , , and , fungi such as and species, and parasites. This review highlights that overlapping symptoms, immune system compromise, and socioeconomic barriers in LMICs lead to delayed diagnoses and suboptimal treatment outcomes, while also addressing the challenges of managing drug interactions particularly in HIV-TB coinfections and underscoring the need for integrated diagnostic approaches, improved treatment regimens, and strengthened healthcare systems, thereby consolidating current evidence to inform future research priorities and policy interventions aimed at reducing the overall burden of TB and its coinfections in resource-limited settings.