Advancing Depression Management Through Biomarker Discovery with a Focus on Genetic and Epigenetic Aspects: A Comprehensive Study on Neurobiological, Neuroendocrine, Metabolic, and Inflammatory Pathways.

Depression is a pervasive global health issue, affecting millions worldwide and causing significant disability. Despite its prevalence, current diagnostic and treatment approaches often yield suboptimal outcomes. The complexity of depression, characterized by diverse causes and symptoms, highlights the urgent need for advanced diagnostic tools and personalized therapies. Biomarkers, particularly and depression biomarkers, offer promise in uncovering the biological mechanisms underlying depression, potentially revolutionizing its management. To identify biomarkers associated with depressive disorders, with a focus on and . To optimize the current classification of biomarkers associated with different types of depressive disorders, with a focus on and . We integrated findings with strategic keywords extracted from relevant studies, conducting a thorough literature review across the Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. Lastly, final reference inclusion had stringent criteria: recent, diverse peer-reviewed articles in English, all study designs, ensuring up-to-date coverage of and research. The review reveals the classification of and in regard to the type of biomarker, the system of the human body it derives from, and the sampling entity. All of the findings show promise in diagnosing depression, with the potential of predicting treatment outcomes and guiding personalized therapeutic approaches. We defined the significant correlations between and profiles and clinical parameters such as symptom severity and treatment response, thereby enhancing diagnostic accuracy and guiding treatment strategies tailored to individual patient needs across diverse depressive subtypes and treatment responses. Identifying biomarkers associated with depressive disorders, with a focus on and , represents a critical step toward improving diagnostic precision and treatment efficacy. By elucidating the complex biological underpinnings of depression, this study contributes to the development of targeted therapies that address the diverse needs of individuals affected by this debilitating group of disorders. Future research should focus on validating these and in larger cohorts and clinical trials to facilitate their clinical implementation and enhance patient outcomes.