Surveillance and pandemic governance in least-ideal contexts: The Philippine case.

This paper inquires how surveillance manifests in least-ideal contexts (LICs), that is, countries with resource constraints, poor governance and proclivity for populism during COVID-19, and its implications for crisis governance. Using the Philippines as a case, we advance three arguments. First, LICs can become spaces where inappropriate surveillance is undertaken. Second, liminal surveillance practices can become permanent policy fixtures in LICs. Finally, when a prevailing crisis approach of a government is perceived to be inconsistent with the needs of the public, it can lead to a self-help system among various societal groups and actors. This self-help system may not necessarily be aligned with the general direction of the national government. As a result, it can perpetuate a disjointed and maladaptive crisis governance approach, where main actors like national governments, and complementary actors like private sector firms, local government units and citizen organizations pursue goals independent of one another.