Hopkins Shaye-Ann M, Rayburn-Reeves Rebecca M, Lindemans Jan W, O'Gorrman Kathleen C, Vandewalker Ian A, Luebeck Caylin A, Sherlock Joseph J
Social Science Research Institute, Duke University, 2024 W Morgan St. Bay A Suite 200, Durham, NC 27705, USA.
Institute for Cognition and Behavior, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Freudplatz 5, 1020 Vienna, Austria.
PNAS Nexus. 2025 Aug 8;4(8):pgaf245. doi: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf245. eCollection 2025 Aug.
In an age of information overload, misinformation poses a growing threat to democracy. Inoculation theory suggests that exposing individuals to manipulation techniques can help build resistance to misinformation and improve their ability to discern such content over time. However, little research has directly compared the effectiveness of active learning tools, such as gamified interventions, to passive learning methods, like informational guides, for enhancing the detection of misinformation within important public issues, such as elections and climate change. To address this gap, we designed two tools aimed at enhancing users' ability to recognize manipulation strategies used to disseminate misinformation: an interactive game () and a passive learning-based guide, and compared the impact to a control condition (). Through two survey experiments ( = 1,035), we explored the effect on beliefs about election-related misinformation (study 1), and the transferability of these resources to climate change misinformation (study 2). Both learning tools significantly improved discernment and reduced engagement with manipulative content. While both interventions were almost equally effective, the tools had a stronger impact on election misinformation detection, compared to climate change misinformation. Notably, the game showed stronger discernment effects among individuals with lower initial discernment, particularly those with stronger beliefs in the inaccuracy of the 2020 election results and conservatives. These findings suggest that both active and passive tools can enhance discernment and resilience against misinformation. These results highlight the effectiveness of both active and passive learning tools across misinformation domains.
在信息过载的时代，错误信息对民主构成了日益严重的威胁。接种理论表明，让个人接触操纵技巧有助于培养对错误信息的抵抗力，并随着时间的推移提高他们辨别此类内容的能力。然而，很少有研究直接比较主动学习工具（如游戏化干预）与被动学习方法（如信息指南）在增强对选举和气候变化等重要公共问题中的错误信息检测方面的有效性。为了填补这一空白，我们设计了两种工具，旨在提高用户识别用于传播错误信息的操纵策略的能力：一款互动游戏（ ）和一份基于被动学习的指南，并将其影响与对照组（ ）进行比较。通过两项调查实验（ = 1,035），我们探讨了对与选举相关的错误信息的信念的影响（研究1），以及这些资源对气候变化错误信息的可转移性（研究2）。两种学习工具都显著提高了辨别能力，并减少了对操纵性内容的参与度。虽然两种干预措施几乎同样有效，但与气候变化错误信息相比，这些工具对选举错误信息检测的影响更大。值得注意的是， 游戏在初始辨别能力较低的个体中显示出更强的辨别效果，特别是那些对2020年选举结果的不准确和保守派有更强信念的人。这些发现表明，主动和被动工具都可以增强对错误信息的辨别能力和抵御能力。这些结果突出了主动和被动学习工具在错误信息领域的有效性。
