Essentialism and graded membership in animal and artifact categories.

A number of studies have argued that people view membership in animal and artifact categories as a matter of degree. These studies have generally failed to distinguish between the issues of typicality and category membership. Thus, data which have been taken to demonstrate that membership is a matter of degree may only demonstrate that typicality is graded. Partly on the basis of these findings, it has been argued that some categories are organized around an underlying essence. The essence determines membership absolutely. The present paper reports a series of studies that reexamine the question of graded membership. In the first study, subjects were asked to rate both typicality and category membership for the same stimuli as a way of distinguishing the two questions. A second method relied on the intuition that disagreements about membership in all-or-none and graded categories may have different qualities. Results from both studies suggest some support for claims that membership in animal and artifact categories is a matter of degree. A third study explored the possibility that graded responses were due to conflicting, or ambiguous, sets of criteria. A task focusing on biological features did not lead to more absolute categorization. These results contradict essentialist predictions.