Skinner E A, Zimmer-Gembeck M J, Connell J P
Psychology Department, Portland State University, OR 97207-0751, USA.
Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 1998;63(2-3):i-vi, 1-220.
Research on individual differences demonstrates that children's perceived control exerts a strong effect on their academic achievement and that, in turn, children's actual school performance influences their sense of control. At the same time, developmental research shows systematic age-graded changes in the processes that children use to regulate and interpret control experiences. Drawing on both these perspectives, the current study examines (1) age differences in the operation of beliefs-performance cycles and (2) the effects of these cycles on the development of children's perceived control and classroom engagement from the third to the seventh grade. Longitudinal data on about 1,600 children were collected six times (every fall and spring) over 3 consecutive school years, including children's reports of their perceived control and individual interactions with teachers; teachers' reports of each student's engagement in class; and, for a subset of students, grades and achievement tests. Analyses of individual differences and individual growth curves (estimated using hierarchical linear modeling procedures) were consistent, not only with a cyclic model of context, self, action, and outcomes, but also with predictors of individual development over 5 years from grade 3 to grade 7. Children who experienced teachers as warm and contingent were more likely to develop optimal profiles of control; these beliefs supported more active engagement in the classroom, resulting in better academic performance; success in turn predicted the maintenance of optimistic beliefs about the effectiveness of effort. In contrast, children who experienced teachers as unsupportive were more likely to develop beliefs that emphasized external causes; these profiles of control predicted escalating classroom disaffection and lower scholastic achievement; in turn, these poor performances led children to increasingly doubt their own capacities and to believe even more strongly in the power of luck and unknown causes. Systematic age differences in analyses suggested that the aspects of control around which these cycles are organized change with development. The beliefs that regulated engagement shifted from effort to ability and from beliefs about the causes of school performance (strategy beliefs) to beliefs about the self's capacities. The feedback loop from individual performance to subsequent perceived control also became more pronounced and more focused on ability. These relatively linear developmental changes may have contributed to an abrupt decline in children's classroom engagement as they negotiated the transition to middle school and experienced losses in teacher support. Implications are discussed for future study of individual differences and development, especially the role of changing school contexts, mechanisms of influence, and developmentally appropriate interventions to optimize children's perceived control and engagement.
关于个体差异的研究表明，儿童的感知控制对其学业成绩有很大影响，反过来，儿童在学校的实际表现也会影响他们的控制感。同时，发展研究表明，儿童用于调节和解释控制体验的过程存在系统的年龄分级变化。综合这两种观点，本研究考察了：（1）信念 - 表现循环运作中的年龄差异；（2）从三年级到七年级，这些循环对儿童感知控制发展和课堂参与度的影响。在连续3个学年中，对约1600名儿童进行了6次纵向数据收集（每年秋季和春季各一次），包括儿童对其感知控制的报告以及与教师的个别互动；教师对每个学生课堂参与度的报告；以及部分学生的成绩和学业测试。对个体差异和个体成长曲线的分析（使用分层线性建模程序进行估计）不仅与情境、自我、行为和结果的循环模型一致，而且与从三年级到七年级的5年个体发展预测因素一致。那些认为教师热情且有条件给予支持的儿童更有可能形成最佳的控制模式；这些信念支持他们在课堂上更积极地参与，从而取得更好的学业成绩；成功反过来又预测了对努力有效性的乐观信念的维持。相比之下，那些认为教师不给予支持的儿童更有可能形成强调外部原因的信念；这些控制模式预示着课堂不满情绪的升级和学业成绩的下降；反过来，这些糟糕的表现导致儿童越来越怀疑自己的能力，并更加坚信运气和未知原因的力量。分析中的系统年龄差异表明，这些循环所围绕的控制方面会随着发展而变化。调节参与度的信念从努力转向能力，从关于学业成绩原因的信念（策略信念）转向关于自我能力的信念。从个体表现到后续感知控制的反馈回路也变得更加明显，并且更加关注能力。这些相对线性的发展变化可能导致儿童在进入中学过渡阶段并经历教师支持减少时，课堂参与度突然下降。文中讨论了这些发现对未来个体差异与发展研究的启示，特别是不断变化的学校环境、影响机制以及适合发展阶段的干预措施在优化儿童感知控制和参与度方面的作用。
