End-of-life decision making in the intensive care unit.

Increasingly in the United States and other countries, medical decisions, including those at the end of life, are made using a shared decision-making model. Under this model, physicians and other clinicians help patients clarify their values and reach consensus about treatment courses consistent with them. Because most critically ill patients are decisionally impaired, family members and other surrogates must make end-of-life decisions for them, ideally in accord with a substituted judgment standard. Physicians generally make decisions for patients who lack families or other surrogates and have no advance directives, based on a best interests standard and occasionally in consultation with other physicians or with review by a hospital ethics committee. End-of-life decisions for patients with surrogates usually are made at family conferences, the functioning of which can be improved by several methods that have been demonstrated to improve communications. Facilitative ethics consultations can be helpful in resolving conflicts when physicians and families disagree in end-of-life decisions. Ethics committees actually are allowed to make such decisions in one state when disagreements cannot be resolved otherwise.