Circadian clocks, food intake, and metabolism.

Circadian rhythmicity that has been shaped by evolution over millions of years generates an internal timing controlling the sleep-wake and metabolism cycles. The daily variations between sleep/fasting/catabolism and wakefulness/feeding/anabolism are coordinated by a master hypothalamic clock, mainly reset by ambient light. Secondary clocks, including liver and adipose tissue, are normally synchronized by the master clock, but they are also sensitive to feeding time, especially when meals take place during the usual resting period. Cellular metabolism and circadian clocks are tightly interconnected at the molecular levels. Although the suprachiasmatic clock is not shifted by mealtime under light-dark conditions, nutritional cues can feedback onto it and modulate its function under hypo- and hypercaloric (high-fat) conditions. Food-related reward cues are other modulators of the master clock. Circadian disturbances (e.g., desynchronization induced by shift work or chronic jet lag) are frequently associated with metabolic dysfunctions (chronobesity) and vice versa. Pharmacological tools and natural synchronizers (i.e., light and mealtime) can be useful as chronotherapeutic treatments to limit the occurrence of metabolic risk factors.