Scintillating Nanoparticles as Energy Mediators for Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy.

Achieving effective treatment of deep-seated tumors is a major challenge for traditional photodynamic therapy (PDT) due to difficulties in delivering light into the subsurface. Thanks to their great tissue penetration, X-rays hold the potential to become an ideal excitation source for activating photosensitizers (PS) that accumulate in deep tumor tissue. Recently, a wide variety of nanoparticles have been developed for this purpose. The nanoparticles are designed as carriers for loading various kinds of PSs and can facilitate the activation process by transferring energy harvested from X-ray irradiation to the loaded PS. In this review, we focus on recent developments of nanoscintillators with high energy transfer efficiency, their rational designs, as well as potential applications in next-generation PDT. Treatment of deep-seated tumors by using radioisotopes as an internal light source will also be discussed.