Bone Remodeling and the Microbiome.

Exposed surfaces of mammals are colonized with 100 trillion indigenous bacteria, fungi, and viruses, creating a diverse ecosystem known as the microbiome. The gastrointestinal tract harbors the greatest numbers of these microorganisms, which regulate human nutrition, metabolism, and immune system function. Moreover, the intestinal microbiota contains pro- and anti-inflammatory products that modulate immune responses and may play a role in maintaining gut barrier function. Therefore, the community composition of the microbiota has profound effects on the immune status of the host and impacts the development and/or progression of inflammatory diseases. Accordingly, numerous studies have shown differences in the microbiota of patients with and without a given inflammatory condition. There is now strong evidence that the gut microbiome regulates bone homeostasis in health and disease, and that prebiotic and probiotics protect against bone loss. Herein, the evidence supporting the role of the microbiota and the effects of prebiotic and probiotics will be reviewed.