Liquid - Phase microextraction and electromembrane extraction in millifluidic devices:A tutorial.

This tutorial discusses how to integrate different microextraction procedures into millifluidic platforms and the applicability of such systems for the determination of acidic and basic drugs. Sample preparation techniques have been downscaled into a millifluidic format and the replacement of conventional analytical systems by miniaturized alternatives has increased during recent years due to the small volume consumption of toxic solvents and sample required, shorter extraction times, simple-handling and low cost, among others. This review comprehensively summarizes the development of liquid-liquid extraction into a millifluidic device in a three-phase configuration, with focus on (a) historical development, (b) extraction mechanisms and performance, (c) operation modes and automatization, (d) operational parameters, (e) applications, and (f) future directions and perspectives.