Immune escape mechanisms and therapeutic approaches in cancer: the cancer-immunity cycle.

The introduction of immune checkpoint inhibitors has changed the therapeutic possibilities for various cancer types. However, despite the success in some entities, a significant fraction of patients does not respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors. A functioning cancer-immunity cycle is needed as the precondition for a clinically meaningful response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. It is assumed that only if each step of the cycle is activated and functioning properly, immune checkpoint inhibitors induce a meaningful immune response. However, an activated cancer-immunity cycle might not be present equally in each patient and cancer type. Ideally, treatment concepts should consider each single step of the cancer-immunity cycle and provide personalized treatment approaches, allowing the adaption to functioning and malfunctioning steps of the individual patient's specific cancer-immunity cycle. In the following review, we provide an overview of the single steps of the cancer-immunity cycle as well as the impact of malfunctioning steps on the generation of an effective tumor-specific immune response.