Artificial Intelligence in Digital Pathology to Advance Cancer Immunotherapy.

Immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized the treatment of many malignancies. For instance, in lung cancer, however, only 2030% of patients can achieve durable clinical benefits from ICI monotherapy. Histopathologic and molecular features such as histological type, PD-L1 expression, and tumor mutation burden (TMB), play a paramount role in selecting appropriate regimens for cancer treatment in the era of immunotherapy. Unfortunately, none of the existing features are exclusive predictive biomarkers. Thus, there is an imperative need to pinpoint more effective biomarkers to identify patients who may achieve the most benefit from ICIs. The adoption of digital pathology in clinical flow, as being powered by artificial intelligence (AI) especially deep learning, has catalyzed the automated analysis of tissue slides. With the breakthrough of multiplex bioimaging technology, researchers can comprehensively characterize the tumor microenvironment, including the different immune cells' distribution, function, and interaction. Here, we briefly summarize recent AI studies in digital pathology and share our perspective on emerging paradigms and directions to advance the development of immunotherapy biomarkers.