Toward sustainable crops: integrating vegetative (non-seed) lipid storage, carbon-nitrogen dynamics, and redox regulation.

The global challenges of climate change and rising energy demands necessitate innovative agricultural solutions. One promising strategy is the transformation of photosynthetic tissues into lipid-rich organs, providing energy-dense biomass for biofuel production while enhancing carbon sequestration. However, these metabolic shifts require substantial NADPH and ATP, reshaping cellular processes such as the Calvin-Benson cycle, glycolysis, and oxidative pentose phosphate pathways. This review explores the intricate metabolic and regulatory networks underpinning lipid accumulation, with a focus on carbon/nitrogen partitioning, redox regulation, and their implications for plant stress tolerance and productivity. Furthermore, we highlight recent progress in field applications, multi-omics integration, and emerging strategies to optimize lipid accumulation in crops while mitigating trade-offs in biomass yield and agronomic performance. Understanding these complex interactions will be essential for developing sustainable, high-lipid crops that support bioenergy production and climate-resilient agriculture.