Lempers J D, Flavell E R, Flavell J H
Genet Psychol Monogr. 1977 Feb;95(1):3-53.
The purpose of this study of early social-cognitive development was to assess the very young child's behaviorally expressed knowledge of people's visual-attentional acts and abilities. Boys and girls (N = 60) 1, 1 1/2, 2, 2 1/2, and 3 years of age were tested in their homes with their mother's help. Three sorts of tasks were used: 1. Percept production. The child's task was to produce a visual percept in the other. Examples include pointing to objects ("productive pointing") and a wide variety of object-showing problems. 2. Percept deprivation. The opposite, exemplified by a variety of object-hiding problems. 3. Percept diagnosis. The child's task was to determine what the other was already visually attending to, either by looking where his or her finger was pointed ("receptive pointing") or where his eyes were directed. It was found that the majority of 1-year-olds produced and comprehended pointing, and would sometimes hold out a toy to show it, but did little else. The 3-year-olds were at ceiling on virtually all tasks. At 1 1/2 years, children usually showed a picture by holding it flat so that both they and the other could see it. Jrom 2 on, they usually turned it toward the other in the adult fashion. Very few children of any age showed egocentrically--i.e., orienting the picture so only they could see it. By age 2, the children solved what were presumably novel showing problems for them: e.g., successfully showing to another a picture pasted on the inside bottom of a hollow cube. Hiding ability emerged later than showing ability but seemed well established by age 3. The role of the other's eyes in seeing appeared to be quite well understood at least by age 2-2 1/2. As examples, children of this age took the other's hands away from her or his eyes before trying to show her something, and could usually tell where she was looking from her eye orientation alone. These age trends presumably reflect important developments in the area of social interaction and communication, as well as with respect to cognition about percepts.
这项关于早期社会认知发展的研究目的是评估幼儿通过行为表现出的对人们视觉注意行为和能力的认知。1岁、1岁半、2岁、2岁半和3岁的男孩和女孩（N = 60）在母亲的帮助下于家中接受测试。使用了三种类型的任务：1. 感知产生。孩子的任务是在他人身上产生一种视觉感知。例如指向物体（“主动指向”）以及各种各样展示物体的问题。2. 感知剥夺。与之相反的情况，例如各种藏物问题。3. 感知诊断。孩子的任务是通过看对方手指所指的地方（“接受性指向”）或眼睛所看的方向来确定对方已经在视觉上关注什么。研究发现，大多数1岁儿童会做出并理解指向动作，有时还会拿出玩具展示，但其他行为很少。3岁儿童在几乎所有任务上都达到了上限。1岁半时，孩子们通常会将图片平举以便自己和他人都能看到。从2岁起，他们通常会以成人的方式将图片转向对方。任何年龄段中极少有孩子以自我为中心——即把图片转向只有自己能看到的方向。到2岁时，孩子们解决了对他们来说可能是新颖的展示问题：例如，成功地向另一个人展示粘贴在空心立方体内部底部的图片。藏物能力比展示能力出现得晚，但到3岁时似乎已稳固确立。至少到2岁至2岁半时，孩子们似乎已经很好地理解了他人眼睛在看东西时的作用。例如，这个年龄段的孩子在试图向对方展示某物之前会把对方的手从眼睛上拿开，并且通常仅从对方眼睛的方向就能判断出她在看哪里。这些年龄趋势大概反映了社会互动和交流领域以及关于感知的认知方面的重要发展。
