Individual recognition, dominance hierarchies and winner and loser effects.

Winner and loser effects are defined as an increased probability of winning an aggressive interaction at time T, based on victories at time T-1, T-2, etc., and an increased probability of losing at time T, based on losses at time T-1, T-2, etc., respectively. Prior theoretical work on dominance hierarchy formation has demonstrated that when players are not capable of individual recognition, loser effects always produce a clear top-ranked (alpha) individual, but all other ranks in a group remain unclear; whereas winner effects always produce strict linear hierarchies in which the rank of each individual is clear. Paradoxically, however, when individual recognition--a phenomenon long thought to stabilize hierarchies--is possible, winner and loser effects have no impact on the probability of forming strict linear hierarchies.