Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
National Health and Environmental Research Laboratory (NHEERL), Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
Environ Res. 2018 Feb;161:35-48. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.10.043. Epub 2017 Nov 1.
There is an urgent need to provide access to cleaner end user energy technologies for the nearly 40% of the world's population who currently depend on rudimentary cooking and heating systems. Advanced cookstoves (CS) are designed to cut emissions and solid-fuel consumption, thus reducing adverse human health and environmental impacts.
We hypothesized that, compared to a traditional (Tier 0) three-stone (3-S) fire, acute inhalation of solid-fuel emissions from advanced natural-draft (ND; Tier 2) or forced-draft (FD; Tier 3) stoves would reduce exposure biomarkers and lessen pulmonary and innate immune system health effects in exposed mice.
Across two simulated cooking cycles (duration ~ 3h), emitted particulate mass concentrations were reduced 80% and 62% by FD and ND stoves, respectively, compared to the 3-S fire; with corresponding decreases in particles visible within murine alveolar macrophages. Emitted carbon monoxide was reduced ~ 90% and ~ 60%, respectively. Only 3-S-fire-exposed mice had increased carboxyhemoglobin levels. Emitted volatile organic compounds were FD ≪ 3-S-fire ≤ ND stove; increased expression of genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism (COX-2, NQO1, CYP1a1) was detected only in ND- and 3-S-fire-exposed mice. Diminished macrophage phagocytosis was observed in the ND group. Lung glutathione was significantly depleted across all CS groups, however the FD group had the most severe, ongoing oxidative stress.
These results are consistent with reports associating exposure to solid fuel stove emissions with modulation of the innate immune system and increased susceptibility to infection. Lower respiratory infections continue to be a leading cause of death in low-income economies. Notably, 3-S-fire-exposed mice were the only group to develop acute lung injury, possibly because they inhaled the highest concentrations of hazardous air toxicants (e.g., 1,3-butadiene, toluene, benzene, acrolein) in association with the greatest number of particles, and particles with the highest % organic carbon. However, no Tier 0-3 ranked CS group was without some untoward health effect indicating that access to still cleaner, ideally renewable, energy technologies for cooking and heating is warranted.
目前全球有近 40%的人口依赖于基本的烹饪和取暖系统，他们迫切需要获得更清洁的终端能源技术。先进炉灶旨在减少排放和固体燃料消耗，从而降低对人类健康和环境的不利影响。
我们假设，与传统（Tier 0）三石（3-S）火相比，急性吸入先进自然通风（ND；Tier 2）或强制通风（FD；Tier 3）炉灶产生的固体燃料排放物，将减少暴露于这些炉灶的小鼠的暴露生物标志物，并减轻肺部和先天免疫系统的健康影响。
在两个模拟烹饪周期（持续时间约 3 小时）中，与 3-S 火灾相比，FD 和 ND 炉灶分别将排放的颗粒质量浓度降低了 80%和 62%；相应地，在小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞中也减少了可见的颗粒。一氧化碳排放量分别降低了约 90%和 60%。只有 3-S 火灾暴露的小鼠血红蛋白水平升高。挥发性有机化合物排放量 FD ＜ 3-S 火灾≤ND 炉灶；仅在 ND 和 3-S 火灾暴露的小鼠中检测到参与外源性代谢的基因（COX-2、NQO1、CYP1a1）的表达增加。在 ND 组中观察到巨噬细胞吞噬作用减弱。所有 CS 组的肺谷胱甘肽水平均显著耗尽，但 FD 组的氧化应激最为严重且持续。
这些结果与将暴露于固体燃料炉灶排放物与先天免疫系统的调节以及增加感染易感性联系起来的报告一致。下呼吸道感染仍然是低收入经济体中死亡的主要原因。值得注意的是，只有 3-S 火灾暴露的小鼠出现急性肺损伤，这可能是因为它们吸入了最高浓度的有害空气有毒物质（例如，1,3-丁二烯、甲苯、苯、丙烯醛），并与最多数量的颗粒以及具有最高有机碳百分比的颗粒接触。然而，没有一个 Tier 0-3 级别的 CS 组没有不良的健康影响，这表明有必要获得更清洁、理想的可再生能源技术来烹饪和取暖。
