Regulation of antibiotic biosynthesis in actinomycetes: Perspectives and challenges.

Actinomycetes are the main sources of antibiotics. The onset and level of production of each antibiotic is subject to complex control by multi-level regulators. These regulators exert their functions at hierarchical levels. At the lower level, cluster-situated regulators (CSRs) directly control the transcription of neighboring genes within the gene cluster. Higher-level pleiotropic and global regulators exert their functions mainly through modulating the transcription of CSRs. Advances in understanding of the regulation of antibiotic biosynthesis in actinomycetes have inspired us to engineer these regulators for strain improvement and antibiotic discovery.