The role of B cells in heart failure and implications for future immunomodulatory treatment strategies.

Despite numerous demonstrations that the immune system is activated in heart failure, negatively affecting patients' outcomes, no definitive treatment strategy exists directed to modulate the immune system. In this review, we present the evidence that B cells contribute to the development of hypertrophy, inflammation, and maladaptive tissue remodelling. B cells produce antibodies that interfere with cardiomyocyte function, which culminates as the result of recruitment and activation of a variety of innate and structural cell populations, including neutrophils, macrophages, fibroblasts, and T cells. As B cells appear as active players in heart failure, we propose here novel immunomodulatory therapeutic strategies that target B cells and their products.