Therapeutic strategies of three-dimensional stem cell spheroids and organoids for tissue repair and regeneration.

Three-dimensional (3D) stem cell culture systems have attracted considerable attention as a way to better mimic the complex interactions between individual cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM) that occur . Moreover, 3D cell culture systems have unique properties that help guide specific functions, growth, and processes of stem cells (e.g., embryogenesis, morphogenesis, and organogenesis). Thus, 3D stem cell culture systems that mimic environments enable basic research about various tissues and organs. In this review, we focus on the advanced therapeutic applications of stem cell-based 3D culture systems generated using different engineering techniques. Specifically, we summarize the historical advancements of 3D cell culture systems and discuss the therapeutic applications of stem cell-based spheroids and organoids, including engineering techniques for tissue repair and regeneration.