Probiotics as potential treatments to reduce myocardial remodelling and heart failure via the gut-heart axis: State-of-the-art review.

Probiotics are considered to represent important modulators of gastrointestinal health through increased colonization of beneficial bacteria thus altering the gut microflora. Although these beneficial effects of probiotics are now widely recognized, emerging evidence suggests that alterations in the gut microflora also affect numerous other organ systems including the heart through a process generally referred to as the gut-heart axis. Moreover, cardiac dysfunction such as that seen in heart failure can produce an imbalance in the gut flora, known as dysbiosis, thereby further contributing to cardiac remodelling and dysfunction. The latter occurs by the production of gut-derived pro-inflammatory and pro-remodelling factors which exacerbate cardiac pathology. One of the key contributors to gut-dependent cardiac pathology is trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a choline and carnitine metabolic by-product first synthesized as trimethylamine which is then converted into TMAO by a hepatic flavin-containing monooxygenase. The production of TMAO is particularly evident with regular western diets containing high amounts of both choline and carnitine. Dietary probiotics have been shown to reduce myocardial remodelling and heart failure in animal models although the precise mechanisms for these effects are not completely understood. A large number of probiotics have been shown to possess a reduced capacity to synthesize gut-derived trimethylamine and therefore TMAO thereby suggesting that inhibition of TMAO is a factor mediating the beneficial cardiac effects of probiotics. However, other potential mechanisms may also be important contributing factors. Here, we discuss the potential benefit of probiotics as effective therapeutic tools for attenuating myocardial remodelling and heart failure.