Breakthroughs and challenges of organoid models for assessing cancer immunotherapy: a cutting-edge tool for advancing personalised treatments.

Organoid models are powerful tools for evaluating cancer immunotherapy that provide a more accurate representation of the tumour microenvironment (TME) and immune responses than traditional models. This review focuses on the latest advancements in organoid technologies, including immune cell co-culture, 3D bioprinting, and microfluidic systems, which enhance the modelling of TME and facilitate the assessment of immune therapies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), CAR-T therapies, and oncolytic viruses. Although these models have great potential in personalised cancer treatment, challenges persist in immune cell diversity, long-term culture stability, and reproducibility. Future developments integrating artificial intelligence (AI), multi-omics, and high-throughput platforms are expected to improve the predictive power of organoid models and accelerate the clinical translation of immunotherapy.