Bell Raoul, Mieth Laura, Buchner Axel
Department of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany.
PLoS One. 2017 Nov 9;12(11):e0187952. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187952. eCollection 2017.
Most theories of social exchange distinguish between two different types of cooperation, depending on whether or not cooperation occurs conditional upon the partner's previous behaviors. Here, we used a multinomial processing tree model to distinguish between positive and negative reciprocity and cooperation bias in a sequential Prisoner's Dilemma game. In Experiments 1 and 2, the facial expressions of the partners were varied to manipulate cooperation bias. In Experiment 3, an extinction instruction was used to manipulate reciprocity. The results confirm that people show a stronger cooperation bias when interacting with smiling compared to angry-looking partners, supporting the notion that a smiling facial expression in comparison to an angry facial expression helps to construe a situation as cooperative rather than competitive. Reciprocity was enhanced for appearance-incongruent behaviors, but only when participants were encouraged to form expectations about the partners' future behaviors. Negative reciprocity was not stronger than positive reciprocity, regardless of whether expectations were manipulated or not. Experiment 3 suggests that people are able to ignore previous episodes of cheating as well as previous episodes of cooperation if these turn out to be irrelevant for predicting a partner's future behavior. The results provide important insights into the mechanisms of social cooperation.
大多数社会交换理论根据合作是否取决于伙伴之前的行为，区分了两种不同类型的合作。在此，我们使用多项式加工树模型，在顺序囚徒困境博弈中区分正互惠、负互惠和合作偏差。在实验1和实验2中，通过改变伙伴的面部表情来操纵合作偏差。在实验3中，使用消退指令来操纵互惠。结果证实，与表情愤怒的伙伴相比，人们在与面带微笑的伙伴互动时表现出更强的合作偏差，这支持了如下观点：与愤怒的面部表情相比，微笑的面部表情有助于将情境理解为合作而非竞争。对于外貌不一致的行为，互惠增强，但前提是参与者被鼓励对伙伴未来的行为形成预期。无论是否操纵预期，负互惠都不比正互惠更强。实验3表明，如果之前的欺骗或合作情节与预测伙伴未来行为无关，人们能够忽略它们。这些结果为社会合作的机制提供了重要见解。
