3D printing approaches for cardiac tissue engineering and role of immune modulation in tissue regeneration.

Conventional tissue engineering, cell therapy, and current medical approaches were shown to be successful in reducing mortality rate and complications caused by cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). But still they have many limitations to fully manage CVDs due to complex composition of native myocardium and microvascularization. Fabrication of fully functional construct to replace infarcted area or regeneration of progenitor cells is important to address CVDs burden. Three-dimensional (3D) printed scaffolds and 3D bioprinting technique have potential to develop fully functional heart construct that can integrate with native tissues rapidly. In this review, we presented an overview of 3D printed approaches for cardiac tissue engineering, and advances in 3D bioprinting of cardiac construct and models. We also discussed role of immune modulation to promote tissue regeneration.